William Moulton Marston was a psychologist who contributed to developing the DISC theory, a model used to describe human behavior. The DISC theory consists of four primary behavior types: Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness.
Dominance (D): People with high Dominance are assertive, decisive, and driven. They like to take charge and be in control of situations. They are goal-oriented and may be perceived as aggressive or confrontational.
Influence (I): Individuals with high Influence are sociable, talkative, and outgoing. They enjoy interacting with others and have a natural ability to persuade or inspire others. They are often seen as enthusiastic, optimistic, and charismatic.
Steadiness (S): People with high Steadiness are calm, dependable, and patient. They value stability and consistency, preferring to work at a steady pace. They are good listeners, empathetic, and may avoid conflicts.
Conscientiousness (C): Individuals with high Conscientiousness are meticulous, detail-oriented, and organized. They value accuracy and precision and follow the rules and procedures closely. They are often seen as analytical, careful, and systematic.
It's worth noting that the DISC theory does not label any behavior type as inherently "good" or "bad." Instead, it highlights how individuals approach tasks, communicate, and interact with others. Understanding these behavior types can help improve communication, teamwork, and personal development.
The Enneagram is a human personality model based on nine interconnected personality types. It
is a system that combines ancient spiritual wisdom with modern psychology to
provide insights into different individuals' motivations, fears, and desires.
The word
"enneagram" comes from the Greek words "ennea"
(nine) and "gramma" (something written or drawn).
Concepts and Components:
The nine personality
types: The Enneagram identifies nine distinct personality types from 1 to 9.
Each type has a unique set of characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses.
Wings: Each personality
type has two adjacent types called "wings." A person's wing is
thought to influence their core type, creating a more nuanced and unique
personality.
Triads: The nine types are
grouped into three triads based on their primary emotional orientation: Head
(Types 5, 6, 7), Heart (Types 2, 3, 4), and Body (Types 8, 9, 1).
Levels of development:
Within each type, there are nine levels of development, ranging from healthy to
unhealthy expressions of the type's traits.
Integration and
disintegration: Each type has paths of integration and disintegration,
indicating how they behave when growing and under stress, respectively.
Origins and Authors:
The Enneagram has a
complex history, with its origins tracing back to multiple sources, such as the
teachings of the Desert Fathers, the Sufi tradition, and the Kabbalah. The
modern Enneagram we know today was developed in the mid-20th century by
Bolivian-born philosopher Óscar Ichazo and further refined by Chilean
psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo.
Relation with the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):
While the Enneagram and
the MBTI are personality typology systems, they have different focuses and
approaches. The MBTI is based on Carl Jung's theories of cognitive functions
and categorizes people into 16 types based on their preferences in four
dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling,
and Judging/Perceiving. Conversely, the Enneagram focuses on core motivations
and fears, providing insights into an individual's emotional and psychological
dynamics. Although some correlations between the two systems can be found, they
are not directly related and offer different perspectives on personality.
Professional Reputation
and Results:
The Enneagram has gained
popularity in various fields, such as personal growth, business, counseling,
and spiritual development. Many people find it helpful in understanding
themselves and others, improving communication, and promoting self-awareness.
However, it is essential to remember that the Enneagram is a tool and should be
used alongside other assessments and professional guidance.
Criticisms:
Lack of scientific
validity: Critics
argue that the Enneagram lacks rigorous scientific research to support its
claims and relies heavily on anecdotal evidence and subjective interpretations.
Over-simplification of
human personality:
Some critics contend that dividing people into nine distinct types oversimplifies
the complexity of human personalities.
Potential for
self-limiting beliefs:
Categorizing oneself into a specific type can lead to self-limiting beliefs and
behaviors based on the traits associated with that type, potentially hindering
personal growth and development.
Despite these criticisms,
the Enneagram remains a widespread personal and professional growth tool. It is
essential to approach the Enneagram with an open mind and use it as a starting
point for self-exploration and understanding rather than an absolute measure of
one's personality.
The Enneagram consists of
nine interconnected personality types, each with unique characteristics. Here,
we will describe the nine types and their associated factors, including their
primary motivations, basic fears, and key traits. Additionally, we'll provide
an example of a hypothetical individual's Enneagram results.
Type 1 - The Perfectionist
(or The Reformer)
Primary Motivation: To be
good, ethical, and morally upright
Basic Fear: Being corrupt
or imperfect
Key Traits: Responsible,
disciplined, orderly, critical, and principled
Type 2 - The Helper (or
The Giver)
Primary Motivation: To be
loved and appreciated
Basic Fear: Being unloved
or unwanted
Key Traits: Caring,
generous, people-pleasing, empathetic, and possessive
Type 3 - The Achiever (or
The Performer)
Primary Motivation: To be
successful, admired, and respected
Basic Fear: Being
worthless or a failure
Key Traits: Driven,
adaptable, image-conscious, goal-oriented, and competitive
Type 4 - The Individualist
(or The Romantic)
Primary Motivation: To be
unique, authentic, and understood
Basic Fear: Having no
identity or personal significance
Key Traits: Sensitive,
introspective, moody, creative, and self-absorbed
Type 5 - The Investigator
(or The Observer)
Primary Motivation: To be
knowledgeable and competent
Basic Fear: Being helpless
or incapable
Key Traits: Analytical,
detached, private, curious, and independent
Type 6 - The Loyalist (or
The Skeptic)
Primary Motivation: To
have security and support
Basic Fear: Being
abandoned or unsupported
Key Traits: Responsible,
cautious, committed, anxious, and suspicious
Type 7 - The Enthusiast
(or The Adventurer)
Primary Motivation: To be
happy, satisfied, and content
Basic Fear: Being deprived
or trapped in pain
Key Traits: Spontaneous,
fun-loving, versatile, scattered, and impulsive
Type 8 - The Challenger
(or The Protector)
Primary Motivation: To be
powerful and in control
Basic Fear: Being harmed
or controlled by others
Key Traits: Assertive,
decisive, confrontational, protective, and dominating
Type 9 - The Peacemaker
(or The Mediator)
Primary Motivation: To
maintain peace and harmony
Basic Fear: Loss of
connection or fragmentation
Key Traits: Easygoing, supportive,
accommodating, conflict-avoidant, and passive
Example Enneagram result:
In this hypothetical
example, let's consider a person named Sarah. After completing an Enneagram
assessment, she discovers she is a Type 2, The Helper, with a strong 3 wing
(Type 2w3). This means that Sarah's core personality is driven by the desire to
be loved and appreciated, while her adjacent wing, Type 3, adds ambition and
adaptability to her profile.
As a Type 2w3, Sarah will likely be warm, empathetic, and generous in her relationships. She enjoys
helping others and often goes out of her way to support her friends and family.
However, her Type 3 wing makes her more image-conscious and success-driven than
a typical Type 2, as she also seeks admiration and respect from others. In
times of stress, Sarah may move towards the disintegration point of Type 8,
becoming more assertive and confrontational. Conversely, when she experiences
personal growth, Sarah may move towards the integration point of Type 4,
embracing her authentic emotions and developing a stronger sense of identity.
It's important to note
that Enneagram results should be taken as a starting point for self-exploration
and understanding rather than an absolute measure of one's personality. By
learning about her Enneagram type, Sarah can gain insights into her
motivations, fears, and strengths. This knowledge can help her better understand
her behavior patterns, improve relationships, and work on personal growth.
Sarah can also explore the
other aspects of the Enneagram, such as her triad (in her case, the Heart
triad), which can provide further insights into her emotional orientation.
Additionally, she can examine her levels of development within her type to
identify areas where she may need to grow or where she is already thriving.
Enneagram results can
offer valuable insights into an individual's personality, motivations, and
fears. These insights can foster personal growth, improve communication, and
enhance relationships. It's essential to approach the Enneagram with an open
mind and use it as a tool for self-exploration and understanding rather than a
definitive label or categorization of one's personality.
Resources
Riso,
D. R., & Hudson, R. (1996). Personality types: Using the Enneagram for
self-discovery. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
This book provides an
in-depth overview of the nine Enneagram personality types and offers guidance
on using the Enneagram for personal growth and self-discovery.
·Palmer,
H. (1991). The Enneagram: Understanding yourself and the others in your life.
HarperSanFrancisco.
Helen Palmer's book
explores the Enneagram's psychological and spiritual dimensions, offering
insights into the types' motivations, fears, and potential for growth.
·Naranjo,
C. (1994). Character and neurosis: An integrative view of personality through
the Enneagram and psychodynamic theory. Gateways/IDHHB Publishing.
Claudio Naranjo, one of
the key figures in the development of the modern Enneagram, connects the
Enneagram system to psychodynamic theory and explores the neurotic aspects of
each type.
·Riso,
D. R., & Hudson, R. (2003). Understanding the Enneagram: The practical
guide to personality types. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
This practical guide
provides detailed descriptions of the nine types, including their wings, levels
of development, and paths of integration and disintegration.
·Chestnut,
B. (2013). The complete Enneagram: 27 paths to greater self-knowledge. She
Writes Press.
Beatrice Chestnut's book extensively explores the Enneagram, including the subtypes, which
are based on the three instinctual drives: self-preservation, social, and
sexual (one-to-one).
These sources comprehensively understand the Enneagram's history, development, and
practical applications. By exploring these books, you can gain a more profound
knowledge of the Enneagram system and how it can be used for personal growth,
self-discovery, and improved relationships.
Locus of control is a
psychological concept that refers to how individuals believe they control
events. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they can
influence the outcomes of events through their actions. In contrast, those with
an external locus of control attribute the outcomes to external factors, such
as luck or the actions of others. This concept was first introduced by Rotter
(1966).
Origins and Authors:
Julian B. Rotter, a
prominent social learning theorist, developed the locus of control concept in
1966. Rotter's work in social learning theory served as a foundation for developing
the locus of control as a measurable construct (Rotter, 1966).
Applications and Results:
Locus of control has been
widely applied in various fields, such as education, health, and organizational
behavior. For instance, students with an internal locus of control tend to
perform better academically because they believe they have control over their
learning (Gifford et al., 2006). Similarly, employees with an internal locus of
control tend to demonstrate higher job satisfaction and organizational
commitment, as they believe their efforts contribute to their success (Judge
& Bono, 2001). In health psychology, an internal locus of control has been
associated with better health outcomes, as individuals are more likely to
engage in healthy behaviors (Wallston et al., 1978).
Cultural Behavior:
Locus of control has also
been studied in relation to cultural differences. Research has shown that
people from individualistic cultures tend to have a higher internal locus of
control, while those from collectivist cultures exhibit a higher external locus
of control (Spector et al., 2001). Cultural values can explain this;
individualistic cultures emphasize personal autonomy, whereas collectivist
cultures stress the importance of external factors, such as family and social
groups.
Criticisms:
Despite its widespread
use, the locus of control concept has been criticized. One major critique is
the oversimplification of the internal-external dimension, as it does not
account for the complexity of human behavior (Lefcourt, 1982). Another
criticism is the cultural bias present in the initial development of the
concept, as it was primarily based on Western cultures, which may limit its
applicability to non-Western contexts (Spector et al., 2001).
References:
Gifford,
D. D., Briceno-Perriott, J., & Mianzo, F. (2006). Locus of control:
Academic achievement and retention in a sample of university first-year
students. Journal of College Admission, 191, 18-25.
Judge,
T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations
traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional
stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80-92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80
Lefcourt,
H. M. (1982). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research (2nd
ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rotter,
J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of
reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1-28.
doi:10.1037/h0092976
Spector,
P. E., Cooper, C. L., & Sparks, K. (2001). An international study of the
psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values
The Rotter's test and its
evaluation and interpretation
Rotter's Internal-External
Locus of Control Scale (I-E Scale) is a forced-choice test composed of 29
items, 23 are designed to measure locus of control, and 6 are filler items to
reduce response bias.
Examples of Rotter's I-E
Scale questions include:
When you make plans, do
you usually:
a) Plan on things working
out the way you want them to
b) Feel uncertain that
they will work out as planned
Do you believe that:
a) Most people have
control over their own lives
b) What happens to people
is mostly a matter of luck
Each item consists of two
statements, one reflecting an internal locus of control (e.g., "a")
and the other reflecting an external locus of control (e.g., "b").
Participants must choose the statement that best represents their belief.
Evaluation and
Interpretation:
To evaluate the I-E Scale,
the test administrator calculates a total score for each participant based on
the number of internal locus of control responses. The total score ranges from
0 to 23, with higher scores indicating a stronger external locus of control and
lower scores indicating a stronger internal locus of control. No absolute
cutoff score classifies a person as having an internal or external locus of
control; the scores are generally considered on a continuum.
t is essential to consider
the I-E Scale's limitations when interpreting the results. The test does not
provide an in-depth assessment of the specific areas of control beliefs but offers
a general overview of a person's locus of control. Furthermore, cultural
differences, situational factors, and response biases can influence the scores,
so they should not be interpreted in isolation. Instead, it is advised to
combine the test results with other sources of information, such as interviews,
observations, or additional psychological tests, to gain a more comprehensive
understanding of an individual's locus of control.
Here are ten influential
definitions of culture from various sources:
Tylor, E. B. (1871).
Primitive Culture. London: John Murray.
"Culture or
Civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
Williams, R. (1983).
Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society. London: Fontana Press.
"Culture is one of
the two or three most complicated words in the English language."
Geertz, C. (1973). The
Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
"Man is an animal
suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun; I take culture to be
those webs."
Kroeber, A. L., &
Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions.
Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum.
"Culture consists of
patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted
by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts."
Boas, F. (1940). Race,
Language, and Culture. New York: Macmillan.
"Culture embraces all
the manifestations of social habits of a community, the reactions of the
individual as affected by the habits of the group in which he lives, and the
product of human activities as determined by these habits."
Herskovits, M. J. (1948).
Man and his Works: The Science of Cultural Anthropology. New York: A.A. Knopf.
"Culture is the
man-made part of the environment."
Linton, R. (1945). The
Cultural Background of Personality. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
"The culture of a
society is the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits
which they learn, share, and transmit from generation to generation."
White, L. A. (1959). The
Concept of Culture. American Anthropologist, 61(2), 227-251.
"Culture is an
organization of phenomena which includes tools, implements, utensils, customs,
codes, institutions, ideas, and works of art, as well as the modes of behavior
characteristic of a given human society."
Malinowski, B. (1944). A
Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays. Chapel Hill: The University of
North Carolina Press.
"Culture is the
integral whole of all socially conditioned and socially generated
phenomena."
Hofstede, G. (1997).
Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
"Culture is the
collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group
or category of people from others."
The difference between
culture and civilization is that culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms,
customs, and practices that define a particular society. In contrast,
civilization refers to a more advanced stage of human social development
characterized by complex social, political, and economic systems and the growth
of cities, arts, and sciences.
Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) was a British historian
who proposed a history theory in his work "A Study of History." He
identified 21 significant civilizations throughout history and believed civilizations
pass through genesis, growth, breakdown, and disintegration
Toynbee argued that the
rise and fall of civilizations could be attributed to their ability to respond
creatively to challenges posed by their environment, other societies, or
internal factors.
Bernard Lewis (1916-2018) was a British-American
historian specializing in Oriental studies and Islamic history. His work on the
relationship between Western and Islamic civilizations highlighted the
historical, cultural, and religious differences that have shaped their
interactions. Lewis argued that the decline of Islamic civilization was due to
internal factors, such as the failure to modernize and adapt to new challenges,
rather than external pressures from the West.
Francis Fukuyama (born
1952) is
an American political scientist and economist best known for his book "The
End of History and the Last Man." Fukuyama argued that the spread of
liberal democracy and free-market capitalism signaled the endpoint of
humanity's sociocultural evolution and the universalization of Western liberal
democracy as the final form of human government. This perspective has been
criticized for its Western-centric and deterministic outlook.
Samuel Huntington
(1927-2008)
was an American political scientist best known for his book "The Clash of
Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order." Huntington argued that
future conflicts would primarily occur between different civilizations rather
than between nation-states.
Mariano Bernardez analyzes and discusses several culture and civilization models in the following paper -from Toynbee, Huntington, and Fukuyama to Trompenaars and Hofstede. He uses these two last models to compare multiple countries, US states, and US subcultures in a more in-depth paper:
